Basic Accounting Concepts

Operating Information

This is the information that is needed on a day-to-day basis in order for the organization to conduct its business. Employees need to get paid, sales need to be tracked, the amounts owed to other organizations or individuals need to be tracked, the amount of money the organization has needs to be monitored, the amounts that customers owe the organization need to be checked, any inventory needs to be accounted for: the list goes on and on. Operating information is what constitutes the greatest amount of accounting information and it provides the basis for the other two types of accounting information.

Financial Accounting Information

This is the information that is used by managers, shareholders, banks, creditors, the government, the public, etc… to make decisions involving the organization and its operations. Shareholders want information about what their investment is worth and whether they should buy or sell shares, bankers and other creditors want to know whether the organization has an ability to pay back money lent, managers want to know how the company is doing compared to other companies. This type of information would be very difficult to extract if every company used a different system for recording their financial position. Financial accounting information is subject to a set of ground rules that dictate how the information is reported and this ensures uniformity.

Managerial Accounting Information

In order for the managers of a company to make the best decisions for a company they need to have specific information prepared. They use this information for three main management functions: planning, implementation and control. Financial information is used to set budgets, analyze different options on a cost basis, modify plans as the need arises, and control and monitor the work that is being done.

As you can see, accounting is a multifaceted system involving different people with different needs and after analyzing the various uses and applications of accounting information the American Accounting Association has come up with this definition: “the process of identifying, measuring, and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by users of the information.”

In order to facilitate the informed use of this financial information, accounting has come to be based on specified rules or conventions called “principles.” These principles provide general laws or rules that are used to guide accounting activity and are called Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, or GAAP for short. These principles are established by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) which is a nongovernmental agency funded by the accounting profession and contributions from business organizations. While there is no legal obligation for companies to adhere to GAAP, there are strong practical reasons to do so. From auditing to reporting earning to the US Securities Exchange Commission to applying for a loan, there are very compelling reasons for organizations to conform to the generally accepted standard.

What Is The End Result Of All This Accounting Information?

We’ve talked about the reason for maintaining accounting information and the end result of all of this recording is the preparation of financial statements. These statements let people see, at a glance, the financial position of an organization. These statements provide summaries of the operating information and are used extensively by people within and external to the company. The statements fall into one of two categories:

·         Status/Stock – these statements show the financial status of an organization at one specified instant in time. Stock reports = a snapshot.

·         Flow Report – these statements show the flow of financial information over a period of time. Flow reports = motion picture

GAAP requires the preparation of three different statements:

Balance Sheet

A Balance Sheet is a status report that shows information about the organization’s resources at one given time. Examples of information found on a balance sheet are how much cash is in the bank, what is owed to creditors, and the value of the company’s assets.

Income Statement

An Income Statement (also called a Statement of Earnings, Statement of Operations, or a Profit and Loss Statement) is a report that shows the flow of revenues (amounts earned from business activity) and expenses (amounts paid in the course of operations) over a given period of time, typically a month, quarter, or year.

Statement of Cash Flow

As the name suggests, this is also a flow statement that details the movement of cash through the organization over a specified period.

The whole purpose of accounting is to provide information that is useful and relevant for interested parities when making decisions regarding the company and its operations. In order to do that effectively, a specific language and subsequent rules have been developed for users of the information. By learning accounting you learn these rules and can then communicate financial information with others in a comprehensible and comparable manner.

Bank Reconciliation Process

Accounts reconciliation

One of the first tools you will need for effective account reconciliation is documentation for each transaction conducted in the period of time under consideration. Keep all deposit slips, records of withdrawals from ATMs, electronic payments, canceled checks and the last set of bank statements together until you have reconciled the period in question. 

Being able to quickly verify the beginning balance for the period and then account for each transaction with a document will speed up the process of either affirming that you and the bank are in agreement, or will help you to quickly spot any discrepancies.

Should you find a discrepancy of any kind, use your documents to isolate the origin of the issue and get in touch with your bank immediately. For example, you notice that the beginning balance for the period does not match the ending balance for the previous period, even though everything reconciled at that time. This is a sign that you may need to speak with your financial institution and find out what occurred. 

Chances are that it is a simple error that will be corrected once it is brought to the attention of the bank. However, without having your documents in order and engaging in the process of account reconciliation, the discrepancy could go unnoticed for months and become very hard to track down.

Bank Reconciliation Process

Step 1. Adjusting the Balance per Bank

We will demonstrate the bank reconciliation process in several steps. The first step is to adjust the balance on the bank statement to the true, adjusted, or corrected balance. The items necessary for this step are listed in the following schedule:

Step 1.	Balance per Bank Statement on Aug. 31, 2008
	Adjustments:
	Add: Deposits in transit
	Deduct: Outstanding checks
	Add or Deduct: Bank errors
	Adjusted/Corrected Balance per Bank

Deposits in transit are amounts already received and recorded by the company, but are not yet recorded by the bank. For example, a retail store deposits its cash receipts of August 31 into the bank's night depository at 10:00 p.m. on August 31. The bank will process this deposit on the morning of September 1. As of August 31 (the bank statement date) this is a deposit in transit.

Because deposits in transit are already included in the company's Cash account, there is no need to adjust the company's records. However, deposits in transit are not yet on the bank statement. Therefore, they need to be listed on the bank reconciliation as an increase to the balance per bank in order to report the true amount of cash.

A helpful rule of thumb is "put it where it isn't." A deposit in transit is on the company's books, but it isn't on the bank statement. Put it where it isn't: as an adjustment to the balance on the bank statement.

Outstanding checks are checks that have been written and recorded in the company's Cash account, but have not yet cleared the bank account. Checks written during the last few days of the month plus a few older checks are likely to be among the outstanding checks.

Because all checks that have been written are immediately recorded in the company's Cash account, there is no need to adjust the company's records for the outstanding checks. However, the outstanding checks have not yet reached the bank and the bank statement. Therefore, outstanding checks are listed on the bank reconciliation as a decrease in the balance per bank.

Recall the helpful tip "put it where it isn't." An outstanding check is on the company's books, but it isn't on the bank statement. Put it where it isn't: as an adjustment to the balance on the bank statement.

Bank errors are mistakes made by the bank. Bank errors could include the bank recording an incorrect amount, entering an amount that does not belong on a company's bank statement, or omitting an amount from a company's bank statement. The company should notify the bank of its errors. Depending on the error, the correction could increase ordecrease the balance shown on the bank statement. (Since the company did not make the error, the company's records are not changed.)

Step 2. Adjusting the Balance per Books

The second step of the bank reconciliation is to adjust the balance in the company's Cash account so that it is the true, adjusted, or corrected balance. Examples of the items involved are shown in the following schedule:

Step 2.	Balance per Books on Aug. 31, 2008
	Adjustments:
	Deduct: Bank service charges
	Deduct: NSF checks & fees
	Deduct: Check printing charges
	Add: Interest earned
	Add: Notes Receivable collected by bank
	Add or Deduct: Errors in company's Cash account
	Adjusted/Corrected Balance per Books

Bank service charges are fees deducted from the bank statement for the bank's processing of the checking account activity (accepting deposits, posting checks, mailing the bank statement, etc.) Other types of bank service charges include the fee charged when a company overdraws its checking account and the bank fee for processing a stop payment order on a company's check. The bank might deduct these charges or fees on the bank statement without notifying the company. When that occurs the company usually learns of the amounts only after receiving its bank statement.

Because the bank service charges have already been deducted on the bank statement, there is no adjustment to the balance per bank. However, the service charges will have to be entered as an adjustment to the company's books. The company's Cash account will need to be decreased by the amount of the service charges.

Recall the helpful tip "put it where it isn't." A bank service charge is already listed on the bank statement, but it isn't on the company's books. Put it where it isn't: as an adjustment to the Cash account on the company's books.

An NSF check is a check that was not honored by the bank of the person or company writing the check because that account did not have a sufficient balance. As a result, the check is returned without being honored or paid. (NSF is the acronym for not sufficient funds. Often the bank describes the Cheque returned as a return item. Others refer to the NSF check as a "rubber check" because the check "bounced" back from the bank on which it was written.) When the NSF check comes back to the bank in which it was deposited, the bank will decrease the checking account of the company that had deposited the check. The amount charged will be the amount of the check plus a bank fee.

Because the NSF check and the related bank fee have already been deducted on the bank statement, there is no need to adjust the balance per the bank. However, if the company has not yet decreased its Cash account balance for the returned check and the bank fee, the company must decrease the balance per books in order to reconcile.

Check printing charges occur when a company arranges for its bank to handle the reordering of its checks. The cost of the printed checks will automatically be deducted from the company's checking account.

Because the check printing charges have already been deducted on the bank statement, there is no adjustment to the balance per bank. However, the check printing charges need to be an adjustment on the company's books. They will be a deduction to the company's Cash account.

Recall the general rule, "put it where it isn't." A check printing charge is on the bank statement, but it isn't on the company's books. Put it where it isn't: as an adjustment to the Cash account on the company's books.

Interest earned will appear on the bank statement when a bank gives a company interest on its account balances. The amount is added to the checking account balance and is automatically on the bank statement. Hence there is no need to adjust the balance per the bank statement. However, the amount of interest earned will increase the balance in the company's Cash account on its books.

Recall "put it where it isn't." Interest received from the bank is on the bank statement, but it isn't on the company's books. Put it where it isn't: as an adjustment to the Cash account on the company's books.

Notes Receivables are assets of a company. When notes come due, the company might ask its bank to collect the notes receivable. For this service the bank will charge a fee. The bank will increase the company's checking account for the amount it collected (principal and interest) and will decrease the account by the collection fee it charges. 

Since these amounts are already on the bank statement, the company must be certain that the amounts appear on the company's books in its Cash account.

Recall the tip "put it where it isn't." The amounts collected by the bank and the bank's fees are on the bank statement, but they are not on the company's books. Put them where they aren't: as adjustments to the Cash account on the company's books.

Errors in the company's Cash account result from the company entering an incorrect amount, entering a transaction that does not belong in the account, or omitting a transaction that should be in the account. Since the company made these errors, the correction of the error will be either an increase or a decrease to the balance in the Cash account on the company's books.

• Accounts payable

Accounts payable is the obligation that a business owes to its creditors for buying goods or services. That is, it is the unpaid invoices, bills or statements for goods or services rendered by outside contractors, vendors or suppliers. Accountspayable are sometimes referred to as "payables." Accounts payable is also used to refer to the unit within an organization's accounting department that manages these payments. The accounts payable unit often oversees a variety of tasking which may include authorizing purchase orders, collecting credit card receipts, organizing account withdrawals, and keeping the general ledger, and auditing expense reports. Other accounting transactions that an organization's accounting department may manage includes accounts receivable, which focuses on the billing of customers, and payroll, which focuses on paying the organization's employees.
The job of the accounts payable administrator is a serious responsibility. Paying bills on time and according to the specific terms and conditions can effect company credit ratings and ultimately business relationships.

Bank Reconciliation Statement

Bank Reconciliation Statement is prepared to check the accuracy of the statement provided by the bank or bank pass book against the various bank account entries posted in ledger. Amount and nature of each transaction related with bank is tallied to make sure that the actual bank account and the ledger bank account are in perfect agreement.

When a businessman compares the Bank balance of its cash book with the balance shown by the bank pass book, there is often a difference. As the time period of posting the transactions in the bank column of cash book does not correspond with the time period of posting in the bank pass book of the firm, the difference arises. The reasons for difference in balance of the cash book and pass book are as under :

1. Cheques Issued By The Firm But Not Yet Presented For Payment : When cheques are issued by the firm, these are immediately entered on the credit side of the bank column of the cash book. Sometimes, receiving person may present these cheques to the bank for payment on some later date. The bank will debit the firm’s account when these cheques are presented for payment. There is a time period between the issue of cheque and being presented in the bank for payment. This may cause difference to the balance of cash book and pass book.

2. Cheques Deposited into Bank But Not Yet Collected : When cheques are deposited into bank, the firm immediately enters it on the debit side of the bank column of cash book. It increases the bank balance as per the cash book. But, the bank credits the firm’s account after these cheques are actually realised. A few days are taken in clearing of local cheques and in case of outstation cheques few more days are taken. This may cause the difference between cash book and pass book balance.

iii. Amount Directly Deposited in The Bank Account :Sometimes, the debtors or the customers deposit the money directly into firm’s bank account, but the firm gets the information only when it receives the bank statement. In this case, the bank credits the firm’s account with the amount received but the same amount is not recorded in the cash book. As a result the balance in the cash book will be less than the balance shown in the Pass book.

3. Bank Charges : The bank charge in the form of fees or commission is charged from time to time for various services provided from the customers’ account without the intimation to the firm. The firm records these charges after receiving the bank intimation or statement. Example of such deductions is : Interest on overdraft balance, credit cards’ fees, outstation cheques, collection charges, etc. As a result, the balance of the cash book will be more than the balance of the pass book.

4. Interest and Dividend Received by the Bank : Sometimes, the interest on debentures or dividends on shares held by the account holder is directly deposited by the company through Electronic Clearing System (ECS). But the firm does not get the information till it receives the bank statement. As a consequence, the firm enters it in its cash book on a date later than the date it is recorded by the bank. As a result, the balance as per cash book and pass book will differ.

5. Direct Payments Made By The Bank On Behalf Of The Customers : Sometimes, bank makes certain payments on behalf of the customer as per standing instructions. Telephone bills, rent, insurance premium, taxes, etc are some of the expenses. These expenses are directly paid by the bank and debited to the firm’s account immediately after their payment. but the firm will record the same on receiving information from the bank in the form of Pass Book or bank statement. As a result, the balance of the pass book is less than that of the balance shown in the bank column of the cash book.

6. Dishonor of Cheques/Bill discounted : If a cheque deposited by the firm or bill receivable discounted with the bank is dishonoured , the same is debited to firm’s account by the bank. But the firm records the same when it receives the information from the bank. As a result, the balance as per cash book and that of pass book will differ.

7. Errors Committed in Recording Transactions by the Firm :There may be certain errors from firm’s side, e.g., omission or wrong recording of transactions relating to cheques deposited, cheques issued and wrong balancing etc. In this case, there would be a difference between the balances as per Cash Book and as per Pass Book.

8. Errors Committed in Recording Transactions by the Bank :Sometimes, bank may also commit errors, e.g., omission or wrong recording of transactions relating to cheques deposited etc. As a result, the balance of the bank pass book and cash book will not agree.

Qualities of a Manager

A good manager has at least 10 good qualities 

There isn't a magic formula for good management, of course, but if you're a manager, perhaps these tips will help you be more effective: 

1. Choose a field thoughtfully. 

Make it one you enjoy. It's hard to be productive without enthusiasm. This is true whether you're a manager or employee; 

2. Hire carefully and be willing to fire. 

You need a strong team, because a mediocre team gives mediocre results, no matter how well managed it is. One mistake is holding on to somebody who doesn't measure up. It's easy to keep this person on the job because he's not terrible at what he does. But a good manager will replace him or move him to where he can succeed unambiguously; 

3. Create a productive environment. 

This is a particular challenge because it requires different approaches depending on the context. Sometimes you maximize productivity by giving everybody his or her own office. Sometimes you achieve it by moving everybody into open space. Sometimes you use financial incentives to stimulate productivity. A combination of approaches is usually required. One element that almost always increases productivity is providing an information system that empowers employees. 

When I was building Microsoft, I set out to create an environment where software developers could thrive. I wanted a company where engineers liked to work. I wanted to create a culture that encouraged them to work together, share ideas and remain motivated. If I hadn't been a software engineer myself, there's no way I could have achieved my goal; 

4. Define success. 

Make it clear to your employees what constitutes success and how they should measure their achievements. Goals must be realistic. Project schedules, for example, must be set by the people who do the work. People will accept a "bottoms-up" deadline they helped set, but they'll be cynical about a schedule imposed from the top that doesn't map to reality. Unachievable goals undermine an organisation. At my company, in addition to regular team meetings and one-on-one sessions between managers and employees, we use mass gatherings periodically and E-mail routinely to communicate what we expect from employees. If a reviewer or customer chooses another company's product , we analyze the situation. We say to our people, "The next time around we've got to win. What's needed?" The answers to these questions help us define success; 

5. To be a good manager, 

You have to like people and be good at communicating. This is hard to fake. If you don't enjoy interacting with people, it'll be hard to manage them well. You must have a wide range of personal contacts within your organisation. You need relationships - not necessarily personal friendships - with a fair number of people, including your own employees. You must encourage these people to tell you what's going on and give you feedback about what people are thinking about the company and your role in it; 

6. Develop your people to do their jobs better than you can. 

Transfer your skills to them. This is an exciting goal, but it can be threatening to a manager who worries that he's training his replacement. If you're concerned, ask your boss: "If I develop somebody who can do my job super well, does the company have some other challenge for me or not?" Many smart managers like to see their employees increase their responsibilities because it frees the managers to tackle new or undone tasks. There's no shortage of jobs for good managers. The world has an infinite amount of work to be done; 

7. Build morale. 

Make it clear there's plenty of goodwill to go around and that it's not just you or some hotshot manager who's going to look good if things go well. Give people a sense of the importance of what they're working on - its importance to the company, its importance to customers; 

8. Take on projects yourself. 

You need to do more than communicate. The last thing people want is a boss who just doles out stuff. From time to time, prove you can be hands-on by taking on one of the less attractive tasks and using it as an example of how your employees should meet challenges; 

9. Don't make the same decision twice. 

Spend the time and thought to make a solid decision the first time so that you don't revisit the issue unnecessarily. If you're too willing to reopen issues, it interferes not only with your execution but also with your motivation to make a decision in the first place. People hate indecisive leadership; However, that doesn't mean you have to decide everything the moment it comes to your attention. Nor that you can't ever reconsider a decision. 

10. Let people know whom to please.

Maybe it's you, maybe it's your boss, and maybe it's somebody who works for you. You're in trouble and risking paralysis in your organisation when employees start saying to themselves: "Am I supposed to be making this person happy or this other person happy? They seem to have different priorities." 

I don't pretend that these are the only 10 approaches a manager should keep in mind. There are lots of others. Just a month ago I encouraged leaders to demand bad news before good news from their employees. But these 10 ideas may help you manage well, and I hope they do.

Account System used in Health Care or Hospitals

Account Management Suite provides the core modules of practice management to efficiently manage your practice. The suite features e-Business Manager, a powerful collection module with electronic queues for real time information as to account status.

Patient Accounting module is the core of the Experis or Expert PM. It integrates with all other Expert PM modules and programs. Patient Accounting is a comprehensive system designed to maximize collections, process data efficiently, and improve patient services. Patient Accounting lets you customize billing requirements. It automatically calculates fees based on varying carriers, physicians, and departments, and its flexibility allows you to define parameters to fit your unique processing and management needs. Accounts receivable and practice management information are provided through extensive and concise reporting capabilities. Expert PM eases future planning by giving you exact analyses of where your practice is today so you can plan for tomorrow. Patient Accounting module functions include the following: ·         Patient Registration ·         Charge/Payment/Adjustment Entry ·         Insurance Open Item Posting ·         Patient Billing and Credit Collection ·         Insurance Management ·         Multiple Recall Codes ·         Inquiry Information ·         Data Retention ·         Management Information Reporting   e-business manager module. Designed for collection specialists, this module allows your specialists to access and enter all information on-line. You can optimize your collection ratio with one easy-to-use collection screen. This collector review screen is a worksheet for contacting accounts and updating activity. Each account automatically queues for review and requires the collection specialist to enter an action code before reviewing the next account. Client-defined criteria determine the assignment of accounts and collection policies. The e-Business Manager module's on-line feature ensures that accounts are never missed for review, and the paperless system eliminates the frustration of lost notes. Statistical reports help you make important decisions on staff performance, requirements, and the effectiveness of your collection techniques. And, by managing collection accounts in-house, you increase revenue by eliminating the cost of large collection agency commissions. Highlights of the e-Business Manager module include automatic assignment of accounts based on client-defined criteria; assigned collection specialist numbers are displayed in frequently used account screens; total balance of bad debt and collection agency are displayed on the collection screen; ability to track contact codes by creating billing messages when code is entered; ability to enter recall code and date in the collection screen; and, automatic assignment of accounts to small or large balance categories. Financial Suite provides all the tools of financial management. Beyond General Ledger, Payables/Receivables, ExpertPM can transmit Purchase Orders electronically in ANSI standard format, update inventory through electronic remittance, and provide Case Costing for surgeries and procedures. The General Ledger module provides you with financial information critical to determining financial statements. While other financial modules automatically generate accounting entries, leaving only adjusting entries to be entered, the General Ledger module is a byproduct of daily operations, providing a complete financial database. The General Ledger module automatically integrates with other financial modules, and provides either single entry or double entry mode. On-line inquiry capabilities allow you to view journal entries, account balances, account histories, and budget balances. Among the many comprehensive reports and statements available in the General Ledger module are charts of accounts; balance sheet and balance sheet comparisons; journal entries log; income statements and comparative income statements and schedules; monthly budgeting and forecasting; and, comprehensive year-end summaries. Highlights of the General Ledger module include on-line report requesting and system control; multi-company, multi-divisional, and multi-department flexibility; consolidation capabilities; separate fiscal years for each company and client; detail history for entire fiscal year; ten-digit account number capability; automatic integration with other financial modules; and, up to ten years of account balance history. The Inventory module and its subsystem, Purchase Order, maintain and track inventory distribution, and provide flexible entry and maintenance of purchasing information. Automatic and manual purchasing requests and on-line vendor item cataloging helps your staff manage purchasing functions in an easy and cost-effective manner. Among the many comprehensive reports and statements available in the Inventory and Purchase Order module are open purchase order; past due purchase order; purchase order request and advice; receipt history; new purchase orders for warehouse; late delivery orders for warehouse; and, items received into warehouse. Highlights of the Inventory and Purchase Order module include: Automatic and manual purchasing requests o    Incomplete shipment capabilities o    Receiving with or without purchase order may be entered o    Receipt transaction tracking through inventory module o    Batch order capability at client-specified intervals o    Automatic price and numbering The Check Reconciliation module helps your staff balance checking accounts quickly and accurately. With the capability of handling multiple banks and multiple accounts, Check Reconciliation is a perfect solution for multiple site organizations. Its interface with the Payroll and Accounts Payable modules simplifies reconciliation. A check reconciliation report displays all checks returned, all checks outstanding, and any errors in reporting. Highlights of the Check Reconciliation module include: o    Automatic interface with Accounts Payable ExpertPM module o    Paid check reconciliation o    Outstanding check reconciliation o    Capability to handle multiple bank and multiple account requirements o    Electronic interface with banks for cancelled checks. Chart Management manages the who, what, where, of your paper charts. The suite features an efficient bar-code solution to ensure files are accounted for, accessible for the provider, and provides protection and preparedness for audits  With Exterior’s Chart Tracking modules, lost charts and films are virtually eliminated. Chart Tracking displays information on the date, time, operator, and current location of the chart, and allows staff to access the exact chart location instantly. Chart Tracking greatly enhances the productivity and efficiency of the Medical Records file room, and all areas of clinic operations benefit from the end of potentially disruptive chart searches. Chart Tracking improves quality assurance and patient care by ensuring that the chart is readily available at any given time. Because satellite and ancillary facilities have become so common in health care, today’s physicians often need to manage multiple charts for their patients. The Multiple Patient Chart module identifies and tracks multiple chart records for each patient. With the Multiple Patient Chart module, your staff can match the right chart to the right patient visit instantly. The majority of patient visits require no intervention since the home location is where most of the visits occur. However, when the patient visits an ancillary location, the chart selection process is quick and easy.